Ambleside Online Plutarch's Life of Crassus

study by Anne White

Introduction to Plutarch's Life of Crassus

This term's study takes us to the last days of the Roman Republic. It's the story of Crassus, a consul and general noted for his love of money, probably the wealthiest man in Rome, who was part of the First Triumvirate with Pompey and Julius Caesar. We see a picture of Rome at one critical moment in its history, and Crassus was an important part of that moment.

Rather than go into more detail about his life, I encourage you to look at some of the websites linked below as a background to the study and a preview of what we will be covering.

Links to Background Information

Excellent background page on Crassus with quotes from Plutarch, maps, etc. Note that two incidents included in this biography are recommended omissions from our study.
(Note: I have attempted to contact the owner of the page to ask for permission to post a link here, but the e-mail address given is no longer valid. If anyone knows how I can get in touch with the author, I would appreciate knowing.)

Page with historical background on the 1960 movie "Spartacus." This page gives important dates and details about some of the people referred to such as the Gracchi brothers, Marius and Sulla (also spelled Sylla). I have not seen "Spartacus," so cannot comment on its suitability for Ambleside users; I would suspect that its violence would make it unsuitable for all but the oldest students. (Someone who has seen it tells me that it's not quite as realistically bloody as movies made now, but that it's still a violent story.)

Outline of duties and powers of Roman officials (consuls, censors, praetors, aediles, etc.)

Other Sources of Information

The Story of Mankind, by Hendrik Willem van Loon. See the chapter on The Roman Empire for the background story on Marius, Sulla and Pompey. In my edition, Crassus is introduced on page 113 and is then disposed of in three sentences.

The Pageant of the Past, by D. C. Trueman and J. H. Trueman, copyright 1965 by The Ryerson Press. For those who might come across it in a basement or a booksale, this Canadian high school text is full of useful information and charts, such as one showing the ranking of consuls, praetors, aediles, quaestors and tribunes.

Philip's World History Encyclopedia, edited by Patrick K. O'Brien, copyright 2000 George Philip Limited. This is a great source of maps and short entries about people and events.

Notes on the Recommended Version

I enjoyed reading North's translation of Crassus, but as it is not online we will use Dryden's version instead. You can use North's if you have a copy (the Wordsworth Classics' Plutarch is readily available and inexpensive), but then you will have to look up your own vocabulary.

http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/crassus.html
Recommended online version of Dryden's translation of Plutarch's Crassus. Please use the "download" option instead of clicking on the file name, because just opening the file doesn't seem to load the complete document.

There are three objectionable sections that can be omitted before printing the text.

1. The first paragraph can end with "any of the Romans who lived a more orderly life than he did."

2. In the account of Crassus's stay in the cave, the paragraph that begins "While Crassus remained here, the steward brought them what was necessary" can end with "Pacianus resolved to treat him with all imaginable kindness."

3. I would omit the entire last part of the story after "twenty thousand men were slain and ten thousand taken prisoners." It's very gory.

LESSON ONE

Introduction

You are about to meet a wealthy and powerful ruler of the Roman Republic; someone who crushed a world-famous slave rebellion; and someone who, as the Roman governor of Syria, led his army to one of the worst defeats in Roman history. Yet until now you may not have ever heard his name. The Hollywood movie about the rebellion was titled after the leader of the slaves, not after the general who defeated him. Most people who know something of Roman history have heard of the First Triumvirate. They will probably remember that Julius Caesar was one of its three members, and that Pompey was the second...but the third? Why has someone so influential become so little known outside of history classes?

By the end of the study, you will be among those who remember the name of Crassus. You may admire him or not, you may like him, or you may not; but you won't forget him.

Vocabulary

censor -- there were two censors, usually ex-consuls, elected every five years. Their job was "to register all Roman citizens and their property, and to revise the list of senators." (The Pageant of the Past, p. 234)
triumph -- an official victory parade
avarice -- greed. North translates it "covetousness."
his Parthian expedition -- Crassus, late in his life, led an army against the Parthians (the best archers in the world.) Who were the Parthians? See http://www.parthia.com .
fire and rapine -- North translates this "fire and blood."
Sylla -- spelling variation of Sulla. A Roman general, the rival of Marius (see below). The seizing of Rome referred to here took place in 82 B.C., when Crassus was about 33 years old (he was born in 115 B.C.). When he took power in the city, he needed a way to pay back those in his army who had helped him gain the victory; so he began a kind of "reign of terror" in which many supposedly disloyal aristocrats were executed and their properties were seized.
amanuenses -- North translates this "scriveners." The dictionary defines it "secretaries."
Marius -- A general and ruler of Rome who was responsible for the deaths of Crassus's father and brother. See the historical links for more details.
rhetoric -- classical oratory; the art of influencing the thought and conduct of an audience (Random House College Dictionary)
Pompey and Caesar and Cicero refused to stand up -- other lawyers and officials refused to act as legal counsel in matters they felt were beneath them.

Section to Read: Read from the beginning to "But of this hereafter," with the omission suggested in the introductory notes.

Discussion and Narration Questions

In the Life of Nicias which you may have read last term, Plutarch said that his purpose in writing was "adducing what may make [Nicias's] disposition and habits of mind understood." This first passage about Crassus serves the same purpose, and introduces some of his key characteristics. Which of these characteristics are simply stated by Plutarch, and which ones are demonstrated by Crassus's actions? How did his actions or attitude compare with other men of the time such as Marius, Pompey, Caesar and Cicero?

What do you think of Crassus's ways of gathering wealth (such as buying "fire sale" houses)? Do you think Crassus was taking unfair advantage of people, or was he simply a very good businessman?
If something is legal, does that make it morally right?

LESSON 2

Introduction

This section has two parts. The first part begins with a flashback to 87 B.C., about five years before the time of Lesson 1, when Crassus was 28 years old. In that year, Marius was elected to his seventh consulship, along with Cinna, and he killed off many of his enemies, including the father and brother of Crassus. Plutarch says that because Crassus was young, he wasn't high on the list of enemies, but that he was still in some danger; so he escaped to Spain until he heard that Cinna was dead (84 B.C.). (Just as a note of interest, Cinna was Julius Caesar's father-in-law.) Marius had died in 86 B.C.

More timetable notes: Crassus raised an army and arrived back in Rome in time to help Sylla fight a very bloody civil war against the Marians (supporters of Marius), and in 82 B.C. Sylla declared himself dictator (sole ruler). He then carried out his own "reign of terror," when those who had opposed him (or were just suspected to have opposed him) were put to death. Crassus supported and helped with the war and then its terrible aftermath, and, as we learned in Lesson 1, profited by it whenever possible.

The second part of this lesson describes the beginnings of a long-running personal rivalry between Crassus and Pompey.

Note on spelling of Sylla: Because Sylla is spelled with a "y" throughout Dryden's translation, I will continue to spell it this way as well. However, if you are looking for information from another source, you may have more luck looking up "Sulla." If I quote from a source that spells it with a "u," I won't change it.

Vocabulary

he durst not discover himself -- he did not dare reveal his whereabouts
to sound him -- to ask for help
promising him his liberty -- Vibius promised the servant his liberty
to put all the young men . . . in employment -- to use all the available young men to fight for him
he . . . wanted experience -- he lacked experience
proscriptions and sequestrations -- executions and imprisonments (of Sylla's enemies)

Section to Read: From "When Cinna and Marius got the power in their hands" to "that people might keep out of his way." This is a fairly long passage, and you may wish to break it in half at "cried out against others who were so." Note recommended omission.

Narration and Discussion

What irritated Crassus most about the treatment that Pompey received?

Why did Crassus seem unable to win Sylla's full trust and respect? What was the "last straw" in his relationship with Sylla?

Explain this statement: "As no man was more cunning than Crassus to ensnare others by flattery, so no man lay more open to it, or swallowed it more greedily than himself." Do you think it is true that those who flatter are most vulnerable to being tricked in the same way? (Is it possible to con a con man?) Harder question: why does Plutarch say this at this point, after the story about the part Crassus played in the proscriptions (arrests for treason)?

Plutarch suggests although Crassus was extremely greedy, he hated to see greed in others. Would you say this was hypocritical, or did he just hate to see others getting more and leaving less for him??

LESSON 3

Introduction

Although I said that everyone has heard of Spartacus but not of Crassus, I'm not forgetting that the story of the slave revolt may be new to many students using these notes. You can find quite a lot about Spartacus on the Internet, including a biography here: http://www.oldnewspublishing.com/spartacus.htm .The page includes many quotes from Plutarch.

Briefly, the slave Spartacus raised up an army of slaves against the Romans, and they did one of the most unheard-of things in history: took on the Roman troops in an attempt to fight their way out of Italy (Spartacus was hesitant to try actually taking over Rome). They won several battles, and it seemed they were almost unstoppable, until troops led by Crassus were brought in.

This reading covers the first part of the rebellion; Lesson 4 will finish the story.

Vocabulary

(Sorry for the long list of vocabulary this time; I just wanted to be sure that everyone could follow the story without having to go and look things up.)

gladiator -- (Random House College Dictionary) In Ancient Rome, an armed person, often a slave or captive, who was compelled to fight for the entertainment of the spectators.
gladiators' arms -- gladiators' weapons
superior to his condition -- better than a slave was supposed to be
bacchanal frenzy -- The page about Spartacus linked above says that the wife of Spartacus was "a priestess of the frenzied cult of Dionysus" (another name for Bacchus, the god of wine).
routing -- soundly beating
they assaulted them unawares -- the slaves assaulted the Romans unawares
praetor -- a Roman official
lictors -- armed bodyguards
the consuls -- the consuls at this time were Gellius and Lentulus. As well as being political leaders, consuls were the generals of the army.
Gaul - - in Latin, Gallia; the region which now includes Northern Italy, France, Belgium, and the Southern part of the Netherlands (some definitions include Switzerland and part of Germany as well)
the Po -- the Po river
upon no account to engage or skirmish -- they were forbidden to engage the enemy in battle
decimation -- putting one-tenth of the soldiers to death as punishment
ignominy -- disgrace
attempting Sicily -- attempting to flee to Sicily
received his earnest -- this looks like a word is missing, but it's not a mistake. North translates this "these pirates . . . having taken gifts of him . . . " The dictionary (Random House College Dictionary) explains "earnest" in another way: it is a portion of something given or done in advance as a pledge of the remainder. In other words, a deposit.
isthmus -- a narrow strip of land, surrounded on both sides by water, connecting two larger areas of land

Section to Read: From "The insurrection of the gladiators and the devastation of Italy" to "so passed the third part of his army over."

Narration and Discussion:

How do you feel about the way Crassus punished his troops? Was it necessary? Was it fair? It might be helpful to try to describe things from his point of view as well as from your own, maybe in the form of a conversation or a statement given by Crassus.

Why did the slaves begin to rebel against Spartacus when he marched them toward the Alps? Would they have been more successful overall if they had obeyed his orders? Can you think of other situations where long term obedience to authority is more valuable than short term rewards?

LESSON 4

Introduction

"I can put my shoes on all by myself!" boasts Mercer Mayer's Little Critter character. (Of course his laces are tied together.) "I can pour juice for my sister." (All over the floor.) "I can help Dad trim a bush!" (Dad watches in horror as Little Critter wraps the clippers around the whole base of the plant.)

Sometimes wanting to do it all yourself is a great idea. Sometimes, though, the urge to take all the credit causes people to lose sight of their real goals.

Vocabulary

Note: Some of this is not really vocabulary, but clarification of Plutarch's pronouns.

lest he should march -- lest Spartacus should march
checking the flight -- stopping his men from escaping
he began to repent -- Crassus began to be sorry
the honour of the action would redound to him -- the credit for the action would go to him
eminence -- raised area
they came to them with their swords -- the slaves came to their officers with their swords
pioneers -- foot soldiers sent ahead of the rest of the army
[Pompey] met with many of the fugitives -- many of the slaves who were not killed in the battle tried to escape by heading north; they did not realize that they would run right into Pompey's troops by doing so.
a servile war -- a war against slaves

Section to Read: From "Crassus was afraid lest he should march directly to Rome" to "explained in the life of Marcellus."

Narration and Discussion

"Crassus, therefore, [was] very eager to fight a decisive battle" when he heard that Pompey was near. Why was he so anxious to do this before Pompey arrived?

Plutarch says that Crassus was a good general; do you agree? Should he have been honoured for his victory over Spartacus as Pompey was for his victory in Spain? What was the reason the Senate gave for allowing him only an "ovation?"

In the next lesson, you will read about how Pompey and Crassus were both elected to be consuls (co-rulers) of Rome. Considering what you know of the character and background of Crassus and Pompey, how successful a leadership team do you predict they would be? Is there anything that could be done to avoid total disaster?

For older students: The historian Appian includes something in his writing that Plutarch omits: the fact that, at the end of the battle, 6,000 slaves were taken prisoner by Crassus and crucified along the Appian Way from Capua to Rome. (Source: website on the historical background to the movie "Spartacus," as well as other books.) Can you give any reason why Plutarch left out this fact? Do you think that including it would give more weight either to the military skill or the cruelty of Crassus?

LESSON 5

Introduction

On-and-off friends...or simply co-conspirators? Pompey and Crassus find they have greater political power when they help each other, though they continue to be personal rivals. They also discover someone else who shares their desire for power: Julius Caesar.

About ten years pass in this reading. Crassus and Pompey were elected consuls in 70 B.C., when Crassus was about 45 years old; in either 60 or 59 B.C. (sources differ on this) they formed the "first triumvirate" with Julius Caesar; Caesar became consul in 59 B.C. and after that went off to fight the Gallic Wars.

Vocabulary and Notes

(For such a short reading, there is a lot of vocabulary here! Try reading the passage once without referring to the notes; then go back and check anything you are unsure of.)

did not scruple to request his assistance -- did not hesitate to request Pompey's (military) support in getting himself elected as the other consul
amity -- friendship
without effecting any measure of consequence -- without achieving anything important
measured them out corn -- gave them free grain
when their command was ready to expire -- when their year's term of office was almost over
the hustings -- the place from which speeches were made
suffer your consuls to lay down their charge -- allow your consuls to end their term
of man's estate -- of "legal age"
reducing Egypt to be tributary to Rome -- forcing Egypt to pay taxes to Rome
they laid down their office -- they both resigned
the conspiracy of Catiline -- an election scandal in which Crassus was suspected to have taken part
he reconciled him to his father -- Publius reconciled Cicero to his father Crassus
at variance -- not getting along
the Ciceros, the Catuli, and the Catos -- rival political groups
which office when he administered with credit, they decreed him the command of an army, and allotted him Gaul for his province -- Caesar's year of being consul (59 B.C.) passed successfully, and he was then sent to conquer Gaul (his reward)
emulous -- jealous
ignominious -- disgraceful
to effect all -- to make all this happen
the getting of the consulate a second time -- Pompey and Crassus plotted with Caesar to get themselves both re-elected as consuls, so that they would eventually be rewarded, as Caesar was, by being given provinces to rule; then the three of them would hold a great deal of power together

Section to Read: From "And Pompey being immediately invited to the consulship" to "sending many of his soldiers to vote." This is a fairly short passage, but it can be made even shorter by skipping or summarizing the paragraph telling about the time of his censorship, starting "This is what was memorable in Crassus's consulship." It's not that it's inappropriate, but it refers to events that were obviously so familiar to Plutarch's readers that he skims through them, and then leaves them behind and goes on to new things.

Narration and Discussion:

The consulship of Crassus did not effect "any measure of consequence"; his censorship for five years afterward "was altogether idle and inactive." In addition to producing almost nothing during these terms of office, he was accused in a political scandal, and made himself unpopular with Cicero, the leader of the Senate. Yet Caesar realized that he needed the support of Crassus and Pompey to get himself elected consul. Crassus, and others, obviously didn't consider his less-than-memorable decade a complete disaster! In fact, Plutarch says that he was now chasing "a new passion after trophies and triumphs." How could this be? Why did he continue to hold so much influence in Rome? Would you re-hire this person for any leadership position?

LESSON 6

Introduction

In this short passage, Crassus and Pompey go through two more changes of occupation: a year's consulship together, and then moving on to govern foreign provinces. (Was it coincidental that the people were delighted to give them positions far away from Rome?) But like many people who get one nice new thing, Crassus wants even more. He plans to be not only the richest man in Rome, but also the greatest general the people have ever seen.

Vocabulary
A very short list this time! Most other difficult words in this passage can probably be figured out by their context.

Lucullus -- Roman general who had fought in Armenia
Tigranes -- king of Armenia
libations -- drink offerings to the gods

Section to Read: From "But when they returned to Rome" to "these curses and supernatural terrors."

Narration and Discussion

Compare the responses of Pompey and Crassus when they were asked if they would be running for the consulship. What do you think Pompey's answer meant? Why did their responses encourage some others to say they would run?

"These men," said Cato, "did not so much aim at the consulate as at arbitrary government." What did he mean? Compare this to Jesus' teaching that to be first in God's kingdom, one must be the servant of all. What should motivate a Christian who wants to hold a position of leadership and authority?

Describe the atmosphere around these elections. What does this tell you about Pompey and Crassus's confidence (or lack of) in their ability to win by a free and open vote?

Outline Crassus's great plans for conquering the East. What do you think caused him to suddenly become so boastful and conceited about his abilities? Should he have taken more notice of the curses that Ateius called down on him?

LESSON 7

Introduction

A movie star named Paul Newman also sells a successful line of salad dressings. Film stars have become mayors and governors (and president), country singers have started chicken restaurants, and kings have been artists and musicians. Some people are good at more than one thing, and others aren't. Although Crassus has showed his cleverness as a businessman, and has managed to hold onto political power, he begins to show his weaknesses as a general. See if you can pick out some of the mistakes that lead him towards disaster.

Vocabulary

at the twelfth hour -- late in the day
Euphrates -- a major river mentioned in Genesis
Mesopotamia -- the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, now part of Iraq
Imperator -- this generally means emperor; but in Republican Rome, it was a temporary title accorded a victorious general (Random House College Dictionary)
he despaired a nobler achievement -- he had no hopes of any greater success
foot, horse -- foot soldiers and cavalry
usurer -- this means a moneylender, usually an unscrupulous one or one who charges too much interest; the text explains why Plutarch chose this word to describe Crassus.
he denounced mortal war -- the king of the Parthians, Hyrodes, did not want to fight
dotage -- old age
Seleucia -- an ancient city on the Tigris river

Section to Read: From "Crassus arrived at Brundusium" to "whereupon the Armenian went his way."

Narration and Discussion

What does Plutarch say that Crassus should have concentrated on during the winter in Syria? What did he do instead?
Why was Crassus so interested in weighing out the treasure in the temple of Hierapolis?
"But he paid no heed to them, or to anybody who gave any other advice than to proceed." See Proverbs 16:18; 17:10, 12, 24. How do these verses apply to Crassus?

LESSON 8

Introduction

Through hurricanes and drought, and helped along by a "desert fox" named Ariamnes, the Roman army seems to be heading for nothing but trouble.  Crassus knows his army is safer moving along the river, but Ariamnes persuades him to take a detour through the desert. No wonder the eagle on the Roman standard is said to have turned his head backward!

Notes on People Mentioned

If you can get the characters straight in this section (maybe draw some stick figures), the story is fairly easy to follow.

Hyrodes -- king of the Parthians, who is attacking Armenia
Surena -- Hyrodes' "second man in the kingdom," leading the defense against the Romans
Artavasdes -- king of Armenia, who spoke previously to Crassus and urged him "to invade Parthia by the way of Armenia" so that he could offer him provisions and support. (Crassus turned down his offer.). Note: in lesson 7, if you used the online version, his name was spelled "Artabazes," which I think is just a typo.
Ariamnes -- "an Arab chief," "a cunning and wily fellow," who had once been a friend to the Romans but who is now induced (maybe bribed) to help the Parthians
Cassius -- a Roman quaestor, one of the soldiers who advised Crassus to turn back

Vocabulary

preternaturally -- supernaturally
caparisoned -- covered with decorative hangings
lentils -- small flat dried beans
haranguing -- making a vehement speech; scolding
entrails -- inner parts of an animal (being sacrificed)
retiring in flight -- running away
environed -- surrounded
suborned -- induced, bribed
the barbarian -- Ariamnes

Section to Read: From "As Crassus was taking the army over the river" to "how to disorder the affairs of the enemy."

Narration and Discussion

The passage begins with a listing of many "bad omens" that happened around Crassus and his troops at this time. Why did Crassus choose to ignore them? Would it have been better to try to pacify those who were more superstitious than he was, or was he right to say that such things were meaningless and that they should go ahead with their plans?

Plutarch gives two reasons why Crassus was defeated by Surena. What are they? What does he mean when he says that Crassus "fell a ready victim to his subtlety?"

LESSON 9

Introduction

If you play checkers, what is your favourite strategy for moving your men? Does it work better to bunch them all together, or to line them up across the board? In the battle that now takes place, Cassius advises Crassus to spread the army out as wide as possible so that they cannot be surrounded; but Crassus changes his mind and moves everyone into a square formation. Which do you think would be more effective against the Parthians? You might even want to get out some checkers to help visualize the story.

Vocabulary

abroad -- out of his tent
cohort  -- in the Roman army, a division of between 300 to 600 soldiers
young Crassus -- the son of Crassus, also called Publius
effeminacy -- womanishness
after the Scythian mode -- in the Scythian fashion

Section to Read: From "It is related that Crassus came abroad" to "the dishonour of a flight."

Narration and Discussion

At the end of the previous lesson, Ariamnes convinced Crassus that he would "go and contrive how to disorder the affairs of the enemy." Crassus begins this passage in what seems almost a good mood (in spite of the fact that he almost wears his black robe): he laughs, keeps everyone marching, and doesn't seem to be worried. When the scouts come to tell them that the enemy is right there and ready to fight, though, he is "struck with amazement" and doesn't seem to know quite what to do. Is it because he trusted Ariamnes that he seems not to be fully prepared for a battle? Why does he change his mind about the formation of the army?

Plutarch says that Crassus was carried away by "the eagerness of his son and the horsemen that were with him, who desired and urged him to lead them on and engage." This is probably the first suggestion we have had that this situation was not entirely Crassus's fault. If he had not been "carried away" by them, what do you think he might have done? Did he have any other real options at this point?

Explain the Parthian strategy and why it worked well against the Roman defense.

LESSON 10

Introduction

From this point on, the story is the continuing disaster of the Romans' attack on the Parthians. Arrows...even especially painful Parthian ones...must run out at some point, think the Romans. But they haven't counted on camels arriving, loaded with more ammunition! Maybe a full-out Roman charge will scare them away? The Parthians are ready for that too. Crassus begins to see that this is not the easy path to glory he had anticipated, especially when his son is lost in the battle.

Vocabulary and Notes

when they had spent all their arrows -- when the Parthians...
they would either give over or come to blows -- the Romans hoped that when the Parthians ran out of arrows, they would either give up and retreat, or be forced to fight hand-to-hand (something the Romans were better at)
upon that quarter -- upon the part of the army commanded by Crassus's son Publius
they found themselves in a piece of marshy ground -- the Parthians found themselves...
they turned and began to fly -- the Parthians turned and started running away
they merely placed their cuirassiers -- the Parthians merely placed their cavalry soldiers (a cuirass is a special piece of armour that covers the torso, a cuirassier is a cavalry soldier wearing one of these)
javelins -- light spears
For upon these he mostly depended -- Crassus depended most upon his cavalry troops from Gaul
retire among the foot -- retreat among the footsoldiers
unless he had speedy succours -- unless immediate help was sent
And they who brought Publius's head -- this refers to the Parthians

Section to Read: From "However, the Romans had some comfort" to "by perseverance and virtue in confronting danger."

Narration and Discussion

Why did Crassus send Publius to charge the Parthians? Do you think he might have hesitated to send his son into that battle, or would he more likely have been proud to do it? Why?

Comparison to a Bible narrative: read 2 Samuel 18:24-33 (David's reaction to the death of his son). Note any similarities to the story of Crassus and Publius, though David's relationship to Absalom was somewhat different. Why does Plutarch say that Crassus outdid himself in this calamity?

For older students: What do you think of Crassus's speech to the troops? Discuss his saying that "the State of Rome did not arrive to this height by fortune, but by perseverance and virtue in confronting danger." This seems an ironic statement considering the large part that omens and curses have played in this story. Is it fortune, the gods, or God that brought Rome to its peak of power, or was Crassus right in saying that it was their own sheer determination and virtue that must be credited?

LESSON 11

Introduction

Crassus calls to his troops to shout a battle cry, but all he gets back is a half-hearted huzza. Even he has to admit that the morale of the Romans has taken a beating. The Parthians kindly give them a night off from the fighting; but it is not a night of rest. Attempting to escape their camp silently, the Romans fall into confusion and disorder, but somehow many of them, including Crassus, do make it to the Roman-ruled town of Carrhae. Might there be a last chance now for Crassus to negotiate peace terms with the Parthians?

Vocabulary and Notes

Arsaces -- the name of the royal house of the Parthians
expiring -- dying
the wounded men have them new trouble -- the wounded men give the army a new problem to deal with
inferior to two -- this probably refers to Surena and the king of the Parthians?

Section to Read: From "While Crassus thus spoke" to "Crassus was there to be besieged."

Narration and Discussion

"But he wrapped his cloak around him, and hid himself, where he lay as an example . . . of inconsiderateness and ambition . . . " Discuss this sentence. What is Plutarch saying about the character of Crassus?

What should the Romans have done differently after getting into the safety of the town? What do you think of Cassius's eagerness to have Crassus meet with Surena? Is he perhaps too trusting at this point?

LESSON 12

Introduction

Do you remember Ariamnes, "the most faithless of men?" Another guide, Andromachus, who is just as faithless, appears in this last passage as the Romans' guide out of Carrhae, and, with the same degree of helpfulness as Ariamnes, he leads them in circles while keeping the Parthians well informed of their every move. (Who needs Big Brother when you have Ariamnes and Andromachus?)

Vocabulary and Notes

to fly for it -- to attempt to escape
morasses -- swamps
fens -- more swamps
lictors -- bodyguards
some of the barbarians spoke a set purpose -- some of the Parthians let the Roman prisoners overhear false information (knowing that they would carry it back to Crassus when they were released)
perfidiousness -- treachery
league -- agreement

Section to Read: From "Next day, therefore" to "ten thousand taken prisoners." Note recommended omission (the last part of the story).

Narration and Discussion

Discuss Crassus's statement: "Tell all men when you have escaped, that Crassus perished rather by the subtlety of his enemies, than by the disobedience of his countrymen." Is this true? Why did he want this said about him? How do you think people back in Rome, such as the other members of the Triumvirate, would react to his death?

"Twenty thousand men were slain (including Crassus and his son) and ten thousand taken prisoners." Could this have been avoided? How?

Final lesson summary: What ideas about Crassus do you think Plutarch tried to get across in the story of his life? Is there something we can copy, or something to be avoided? Is he to be admired, faulted, or pitied?